The French Revolution: France Becomes a Constitutional Monarchy

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A twelve member Constitutional Committee was convened on 14 July 1789 (coincidentally the day of the Storming of the Bastille). Its task was to do much of the drafting of the articles of the constitution. It included originally two members from the First Estate, (Champion de Cicé, Archbishop of Bordeaux and Talleyrand, Bishop of Autun); two from the Second (the comte de Clermont-Tonnerre and the marquis de Lally-Tollendal); and four from the Third (Jean Joseph Mounier, Abbé Sieyès, Nicholas Bergasse, and Isaac René Guy le Chapelier).The main controversies early on surrounded the issues of what level of power to be granted to the king of France (i.e.: veto, suspensive or absolute) and what form would the legislature take (i.e.: unicameral or bicameral). The Constitutional Committee proposed a bicameral legislature, but the motion was defeated 10 September 1789 (849-89) in favor of one house; the next day, they proposed an absolute veto, but were again defeated (673-325) in favor of a suspensive veto, which could be over-ridden by three consecutive legislatures.

A second Constitutional Committee quickly replaced it, and included Talleyrand, Abbé Sieyès, and Le Chapelier from the original group, as well as new members Gui-Jean-Baptiste Target, Jacques Guillaume Thouret, Jean-Nicolas Démeunier, François Denis Tronchet, and Jean-Paul Rabaut Saint-Étienne, all of the Third Estate. Their greatest controversy faced by this new committee surrounded the issue of citizenship. Would every subject of the French Crown be given equal rights, as the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen seemed to promise, or would there be some restrictions?

Fueled by rumors of a reception for the King's bodyguards on 1 October 1789 at which the national cockade had been trampled upon, on 5 October 1789 crowds of women began to assemble at Parisian markets. The women first marched to the Hôtel de Ville, demanding that city officials address their concerns. The women were responding to the harsh economic situations they faced, especially bread shortages. They also demanded an end to royal efforts to block the National Assembly, and for the King and his administration to move to Paris as a sign of good faith in addressing the widespread poverty.

Getting unsatisfactory responses from city officials, as many as 7,000 women joined the march to Versailles, bringing with them cannons and a variety of smaller weapons. Twenty thousand National Guardsmen under the command of La Fayette responded to keep order, and members of the mob stormed the palace, killing several guards. La Fayette ultimately persuaded the king to accede to the demand of the crowd that the monarchy relocate to Paris.

On 6 October 1789, the King and the royal family moved from Versailles to Paris under the "protection" of the National Guards, thus legitimizing the National Assembly.

The National Assembly completed the draft of the constitution in 1791. After very long negotiations, the constitution was reluctantly accepted by King Louis XVI in September 1791. Its main object was to limit the powers of the monarch. These powers instead of being concentrated in the hands of one person, were now separated and assigned to different institutions, the legislature, executive and judiciary. This made France a constitutional monarchy.

The Constitution of 1791 vested the power to make laws in the National Assembly, which was indirectly elected. That is, citizens voted for a group of electors, who in turn chose the Assembly. Not all citizens, however, had the right to vote. Only men above 25 years of age who paid taxes equal to at least 3 days of a labourer’s wage were given the status of active citizens, that is, they were entitled to vote. The remaining men and all women were classed as passive citizens. To qualify as an elector and then as a member of the Assembly, a man had to belong to the highest bracket of taxpayers.

Women, children and youth below 25 were not allowed to vote in the Constitution of 1791.

The Declaration of the Rights of Man, adopted on 27 August 1789 eventually became the preamble of the constitution adopted on 30 September 1791.

The Constitution began with a Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Rights such as the right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of opinion, equality before law, were established as ‘natural and inalienable’ rights, that is, they belonged to each human being by birth and could not be taken away. It was the duty of the state to protect each citizen’s natural rights.

The resentment toward the Church weakened its power during the opening of the Estates General in May 1789. The Church composed the First Estate with 130,000 members of the clergy. When the National Assembly was later created in June 1789 by the Third Estate, the clergy voted to join them, which perpetuated the destruction of the Estates General as a governing body.The National Assembly began to enact social and economic reform. Legislation sanctioned on 4 August 1789 abolished the Church's authority to impose the tithe. In an attempt to address the financial crisis, the Assembly declared, on 2 November 1789, that the property of the Church was "at the disposal of the nation." They used this property to back a new currency, the assignats. Thus, the nation had now also taken on the responsibility of the Church, which included paying the clergy and caring for the poor, the sick and the orphaned. In December, the Assembly began to sell the lands to the highest bidder to raise revenue, effectively decreasing the value of the assignats by 25% in two years. In autumn 1789, legislation abolished monastic vows and on 13 February 1790 all religious orders were dissolved. Monks and nuns were encouraged to return to private life and a small percentage did eventually marry.

The Civil Constitution of the Clergy, passed on 12 July 1790, turned the remaining clergy into employees of the state. This established an election system for parish priests and bishops and set a pay rate for the clergy. Many Catholics objected to the election system because it effectively denied the authority of the Pope in Rome over the French Church. Eventually, in November 1790, the National Assembly began to require an oath of loyalty to the Civil Constitution from all the members of the clergy. This led to a schism between those clergy who swore the required oath and accepted the new arrangement and those who remained loyal to the Pope. Overall, 24% of the clergy nationwide took the oath. Widespread refusal led to legislation against the clergy, "forcing them into exile, deporting them forcibly, or executing them as traitors." Pope Pius VI never accepted the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, further isolating the Church in France.

The revolutionary journalist Jean-Paul Marat commented in his newspaper L‘Ami du peuple (The friend of the people) on the Constitution drafted by the National Assembly:

‘The task of representing the people has been given to the rich . the lot of the poor and oppressed will never be improved by peaceful means alone. Here we have absolute proof of how wealth influences the law. Yet laws wi ll last only as long as the people agree to obey them. And when they have managed to cast off the yoke of the aristocrats, they will do the same to the other owners of wealth..’

Dwarka

The French Revolution: Political symbols

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The majority of men and women in the eighteenth century could not read or write. So images and symbols were frequently used instead of printed words to communicate important ideas. 
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Symbol	Meaning
The broken chain	Chains were used to fetter slaves. A broken chain stands for the act of becoming free.
The bundle of rods or fasces	One rod can be easily broken, but not an entire bundle. Strength lies in unity. Fasces, like many other symbols of the French Revolution, are Roman in origin. Fasces are a bundle of birch rods containing an axe. In Roman times, the fasces symbolized the power of magistrates, representing union and accord with the Roman Republic. The French Republic continued this Roman symbol to represent state power, justice, and unity.
The eye within a triangle radiating light	The all seeing eye stands for knowledge. The rays of the sun will drive away the clouds of ignorance.
Sceptre	Symbol of royal power. A sceptre (or scepter in U.S. English) is a symbolic ornamental staff or wand held in the hand by a ruling monarch as an item of royal or imperial insignia. Sometimes, it could be used for showing a sense of divinity.
Snake biting its tail to form a ring	Symbol of Eternity. A ring has neither beginning nor end. The ouroboros or uroboros (/jʊərɵˈbɒrəs/; /ɔːˈrɒbɔrəs/, from the Greek οὐροβόρος ὄφις tail-devouring snake) is an ancient symboldepicting a serpent or dragon eating its own tail. The ouroboros often symbolizes self-reflexivity or cyclicality, especially in the sense of something constantly re-creating itself, the eternal return, and other things such as the phoenix which operate in cycles that begin anew as soon as they end. It can also represent the idea of primordial unity related to something existing in or persisting from the beginning with such force or qualities it cannot be extinguished. While first emerging in Ancient Egypt and India, the ouroboros has been important in religious and mythological symbolism, but has also been frequently used.
Red Phrygian cap	Cap worn by a slave upon becoming free. The Phrygian cap (in French, bonnet Phrygian) is also known in French as the Liberty cap (bonnet de la Liberté) or as a red cap (bonnet rouge). It was adopted during the French Revolution.Liberty is sometimes shown wearing a Phrygian cap. So is Marianne. Representations of soldiers in the French revolutionary army show them wearing liberty caps as part of their uniform.
Blue-white-red	The national colours of France. The tricolour cockade, created in July 1789. White (the royal color) was added to nationalise an earlier blue and red design.
The winged woman	Personification of the law.
The Law Tablet	The law is the same for all and all are equal before it.

The painting by Jean-Jacques-François Le Barbier (Last one in tale) uses many such symbols to convey the content of the Declaration of Rights.
Jean-Jacques-François Le Barbier (born in Rouen November 11, 1738 — died in Paris May 7, 1826) was a writer, illustrator and painter of French history. His most famous work was a representation of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen he made in 1789. He was the father of artist Élise Bruyère.

Reference: 
http://www.languedoc-france.info/06141204_libertycap.htm
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolism_in_the_French_Revolution
http://archive.thetablet.co.uk/article/13th-december-1851/10/the-french-revolution

The French Revolution: Outbreak of the Revolution

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In France of the Old Regime the monarch did not have the power to impose taxes according to his will alone. Rather he had to call a meeting of the Estates General which would then pass his proposals for new taxes. The Estates General (French: Les États-Généraux de) was a political body to which the three estates sent their representatives. However, the monarch alone could decide when to call a meeting of this body. The last time it was done was in 1614.

On 5 May 1789, Louis XVI called together an assembly of the Estates General to pass proposals for new taxes. A resplendent hall in Versailles was prepared to host the delegates. The first and second estates sent 300 representatives each, who were seated in rows facing each other on two sides, while the 600 members of the third estate had to stand at the back. The third estate was represented by its more prosperous and educated members. Peasants, artisans and women were denied entry to the assembly.

Voting in the Estates General in the past had been conducted according to the principle that each estate had one vote. This time too Louis XVI was determined to continue the same practice. But members of the third estate demanded that voting now be conducted by the assembly as a whole, where each member would have one vote. This was one of the democratic principles put forward by philosophers like Rousseau in his book The Social Contract. When the king rejected this proposal, members of the third estate walked out of the assembly in protest.

The representatives of the third estate viewed themselves as spokesmen for the whole French nation. On 20 June they assembled in the hall of an indoor tennis court in the grounds of Versailles. They declared themselves a National Assembly and swore not to disperse till they had drafted a constitution for France that would limit the powers of the monarch. They were led by Mirabeau and Abbé Sieyès(originally a priest, wrote an influential pamphlet called ‘What is the Third Estate’). Mirabeau was born in a noble family but was convinced of the need to do away with a society of feudal privilege. He brought out a journal and delivered powerful speeches to the crowds assembled at Versailles.

The Tennis Court Oath (French: Serment du Jeu de Paume) was a pivotal event during the first days of the French Revolution. The Oath was a pledge signed by 576 of the 577 members from the Third Estate who were locked out of a meeting of the Estates-General on 20 June 1789. The only person who did not sign was Joseph Martin-Dauch from Castelnaudary, who would not execute decisions not decided by the king. They made a makeshift conference room inside atennis court, located in the Saint-Louis district of the city of Versailles, near the Palace of Versailles.

While the National Assembly was busy at Versailles drafting a constitution, the rest of France seethed with turmoil. A severe winter had meant a bad harvest; the price of bread rose, often bakers exploited the situation and hoarded supplies. After spending hours in long queues at the bakery, crowds of angry women stormed into the shops. At the same time, the king ordered troops to move into Paris. On 14 July, the agitated crowd stormed and destroyed the Bastille (http://www.thoughtcrackers.blogspot.in/2015/09/the-french-revolution-and-idea-of-nation.html).

In the countryside rumors spread from village to village that the lords of the manor (An estate consisting of the lord’s lands and his mansion) had hired bands of brigands who were on their way to destroy the ripe crops. Caught in a frenzy of fear, peasants in several districts seized hoes and pitchforks and attacked chateaux (Castle or stately residence belonging to a king or a nobleman). 

They looted hoarded grain and burnt down documents containing records of manorial dues. A large number of nobles fled from their homes, many of them migrating to neighboring countries.

The Great Fear (French: la Grande Peur) was a general panic that occurred between 17 July and 3 August 1789 at the start of the French Revolution. Rural unrest had been present in France since the worsening grain shortage of the spring, and fueled by the rumors of an aristocrat "famine plot" to starve or burn out the population, peasant and town people mobilized in many regions.

TAKEN FROM 
NCERT BOOK ( India and the Contemporary World -II FOR CLASS X )
Wikipedia

http://www.britannica.com/topic/Estates-General
http://www.historywiz.com/greatfear.htm

French Society during the Late Eighteenth Century: A Growing Middle Class Envisages an End to Privileges

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In the past, peasants and workers had participated in revolts against increasing taxes and food scarcity. But they lacked the means and programmes to carry out full-scale measures that would bring about a change in the social and economic order. This was left to those groups within the third estate who had become prosperous and had access to education and new ideas. The eighteenth century witnessed the emergence of social groups, termed the middle class, who earned their wealth through an expanding overseas trade and from the manufacture of goods such as woolen and silk textiles that were either exported or bought by the richer members of society. In addition to merchants and manufacturers, the third estate included professions such as lawyers or administrative officials. All of these were educated and believed that no group in society should be privileged by birth. Rather, a person’s social position must depend on his merit. These ideas envisaging a society based on freedom and equal laws and opportunities for all, were put forward by philosophers such as John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau. 

In his Two Treatises of Government, Locke sought to refute the doctrine of the divine and absolute right. of the monarch. Rousseau carried the idea forward, proposing a form of government based on a social contract between people and their representatives. In The Spirit of the Laws (http://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/837), Montesquieu proposed a division of power within the government between the legislative, the executive and the judiciary. This model of government was put into force in the USA, after the thirteen colonies declared their independence from Britain. The American constitution and its guarantee of individual rights was an important example for political thinkers in France.

Accounts of lived experiences in the Old Regime:

1. Georges Danton (Left), who later became active in revolutionary politics, wrote to a friend in 1793, looking back upon the time when he had just completed his studies:

‘I was educated in the residential college of Plessis. There I was in the company of important men… Once my studies ended, I was left with nothing. I started looking for a post. It was impossible to find one at the law courts in Paris. The choice of a career in the army was not open to me as I was not a noble by birth, nor did I have a patron. The church too could not offer me a refuge. I could not buy an office as I did not possess a sou. My old friends turned their backs to me …. the system had provided us with an education without however offering a field where our talents could be utilised..’

2. An Englishman, Arthur Young, travelled through France during the years from 1787 to 1789 and wrote detailed descriptions of his journeys. He often commented on what he saw.

‘He who decides to be served and waited upon by slaves, ill-treated slaves at that, must be fully aware that by doing so he is placing his property and his life in a situation which is very different from that he would be in, had he chosen the services of free and welltreated men. And he who chooses to dine to the accompaniment of his victims. groans, should not complain if during a riot his daughter gets kidnapped or his son.s throat is slit.’

(Young's first visit to France was in 1787. Travelling all over that country around the start of the French Revolution, he described the condition of the people and the conduct of public affairs at that critical juncture. The Travels in France appeared in one large quarto volume in 1792, reprinted in two octavo volumes (Dublin, 1793); enlarged second edition in two quarto volumes (London, 1794). On his return home he was appointed secretary of the Board of Agriculture 1793 just formed under the presidency of Sir John Sinclair. In this capacity he gave most valuable assistance in the collection and preparation of agricultural surveys of the English counties. His sight, however, failed, and in 1811 he had an operation for cataract, which proved unsuccessful.)
TAKEN FROM 
NCERT BOOK ( India and the Contemporary World -II FOR CLASS X )
http://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/837
Wikipedia

French Society during the Late Eighteenth Century

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In Continuation from last post:

http://www.thoughtcrackers.blogspot.in/2015/09/the-french-revolution-and-idea-of-nation.html

In 1774, Louis XVI (Louis 16^th) (Full name: Louis Auguste de France)of the Bourbon family of kings ascended the throne of France. He was 20 years old and married to the Austrian princess Marie Antoinette. Upon his accession the new king found an empty treasury. Long years of war had drained the financial resources of France. Added to this was the cost of maintaining an extravagant court at the immense palace of Versailles. 

Under Louis 16^th, France helped the thirteen American colonies to gain their independence from the common enemy, Britain. The war added more than a billion livres (Unit of currency in France discontinued in 1794) to a debt that had already risen to more than 2 billion livres. Lenders who gave the state credit, now began to charge 10 %  interest on loans. So the French government was obliged to spend an increasing percentage of its budget on interest payments alone. 

To meet its regular expenses, such as the cost of maintaining an army, the court, running government offices or universities, the state was forced to increase taxes. Yet even this measure would not have sufficed. French society in the eighteenth century was divided into three estates, and only members of the third estate paid taxes (shown by dashed line in figure 1).

The society of estates was part of the feudal system that dated back to the middle ages. The term Old Regime is usually used to describe the society and institutions of France before 1789.

Fig. 1 shows how the system of estates in French society was organised. Peasants made up about 90 per cent of the population. However, only a small number of them owned the land they cultivated. About 60 % of the land was owned by nobles, the Church and other richer members of the third estate. The members of the first two estates, that is, the clergy (Group of persons invested with special functions in the church)and the nobility, enjoyed certain privileges by birth. The most important of these was exemption from paying taxes to the state. The nobles further enjoyed feudal privileges. These included feudal dues, which they extracted from the peasants. Peasants were obliged to render services to the lord . to work in his house and fields . to serve in the army or to participate in building roads.

Figure1: A Society of Estates. Note that within the Third Estate some were rich and others poor.

The Church too extracted its share of taxes called tithes (A tax levied by the church, comprising one-tenth of the agricultural produce)from the peasants, and finally, all members of the third estate had to pay taxes to the state. These included a direct tax, called taille (Tax to be paid directly to the state), and a number of indirect taxes which were levied on articles of everyday consumption like salt or tobacco. The burden of financing activities of the state through taxes was borne by the third estate alone.

A small minority of Protestants living in France, such as the Huguenots, wanted an anti-Catholic regime and revenge against the clergy who discriminated against them. Enlightenment thinkers such as Voltaire helped fuel this resentment by denigrating the Catholic Church and destabilizing the French monarchy.

The Struggle to Survive:

The population of France rose from about 23 million in 1715 to 28 million in 1789. This led to a rapid increase in the demand for food grains. Production of grains could not keep pace with the demand. So the price of bread which was the staple diet of the majority rose rapidly. Most workers were employed as labourers in workshops whose owner fixed their wages. But wages did not keep pace with the rise in prices. So the gap between the poor and the rich widened. Things became worse whenever drought or hail reduced the harvest. This led to a subsistence crisis (An extreme situation where the basic means of livelihood are endangered), something that occurred frequently in France during the Old Regime.

Jacques Lagniet - The Nobleman is the Spider and the Peasant is the Fly

TAKEN FROM 
NCERT BOOK ( India and the Contemporary World -II FOR CLASS X )

Wikipedia