Thursday, September 15, 2016

Kashmir : A Political Game-1930-1960(Part-1):History, Conflict, India, Pakistan, Kashmiris, Separatist, Information War, Possible Solution

Kashmir (Urdu: کشمیر, Kashmiri: کٔشِی), )previously spelled Cashmere, is a region in South-central Asia. Historically, the name Kashmir referred to the valley just to the south of the western end of the Himalayan mountain range.India claims the entire erstwhile princely state of Jammu and Kashmir based on an instrument of accession signed in 1947.
कश्मीर (उर्दू: مشمیر, कश्मीरी: ِش )ی),) पहले कश्मीरी के रूप में जाना जाता था, दक्षिण-मध्य एशिया में एक क्षेत्र है। ऐतिहासिक रूप से, कश्मीर नाम का उल्लेख हिमालय पर्वत श्रृंखला के पश्चिमी छोर के दक्षिण में घाटी के रूप में किया जाता है।भारत 1947 में हस्ताक्षरित एक परिग्रहण के आधार पर जम्मू और कश्मीर की पूरी तरह से रियासत का दावा करता है।


Kashmir: History
According to the Mahabharata, the Kambojas ruled Kashmir during the epic period with a Republican system of government from the capital city of Karna-Rajapuram-gatva-Kambojah-nirjitastava., shortened to Rajapura, which has been identified with modern Rajauri.Among the grammarians, the earliest referenee to Kashmir is found in Panini's (500 B.C.) "Ashtadhayi" and in Patanjali's great commentary on it. There the term "Kashmir" and its derivation "Kashmira" are stated as the name of the country and its inhabitants, respectively.Among the epics, we find the name of "Kashmir" in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The Mahabharata refers in several passages to "Kashmir" and their king, but in a way which merely indicates that the valley was situated in the hilly regions to the north of India. Similarly, some of the Puranas refer to Kashmir in the list of northern nations.
Kashmir in Sanskrit

महाभारत के अनुसार, कंबोजों ने महाकाव्य काल के दौरान कश्मीर पर शासन किया था, जो कि राजधानी कर्ण-राजापुरम-गतवा-कंबोजाह-निर्जितवास्तव से सरकार की गणतंत्रीय प्रणाली थी। राजापुरा को छोटा किया गया, जिसे आधुनिक राजौरी के रूप में पहचाना गया।व्याकरणविदों के बीच, कश्मीर का सबसे पहला संदर्भ पाणिनी (500 ईसा पूर्व) "अष्टाध्यायी" और उस पर पतंजलि की महान टिप्पणी में मिलता है। वहां "कश्मीर" और इसकी व्युत्पत्ति "कश्मीरा" शब्द को क्रमशः देश और उसके निवासियों के नाम के रूप में कहा जाता है।महाकाव्यों में, हमें रामायण और महाभारत में "कश्मीर" का नाम मिलता है। महाभारत "कश्मीर" और उनके राजा के लिए कई मार्गों को संदर्भित करता है, लेकिन एक तरह से जो केवल इंगित करता है कि घाटी भारत के उत्तर में पहाड़ी क्षेत्रों में स्थित थी। इसी प्रकार, कुछ पुराण उत्तरी राष्ट्रों की सूची में कश्मीर का उल्लेख करते हैं।

Varahmihra (C.A.D. 500), in his Brahtsamhita, includes the Kashmiras in the north-eastern division of the other tribes who lived in this region. He mentions the Abhisaras, Daradas, Darvas, Khashas, Kiras, etc., the tribes which are known from other sources to have inhabited Kashmir and its neighbouring regions in historical periods. Harasha, a famous poet (7th Century A.D.), in his "Ratnavali" (drama), refers to the saffron of the Kashmira country, which was best of all types of saffrons, both in colour and in scent.
वराहमिहिर (C.A.D. 500), ने अपनी ब्राह्मसंहिता में, इस क्षेत्र में रहने वाले अन्य जनजातियों के उत्तर-पूर्वी विभाजन में कश्मीरियों को शामिल किया। उन्होंने अभिसार, दारदास, दरवेश, खाश, किरास, आदि का उल्लेख किया है, जिन जातियों को अन्य स्रोतों से जाना जाता है उन्होंने ऐतिहासिक काल में कश्मीर और उसके पड़ोसी क्षेत्रों का निवास किया था। हरशा, एक प्रसिद्ध कवि (7 वीं शताब्दी ईस्वी), अपने "रत्नावली" (नाटक) में, कश्मीरा देश के भगवा को संदर्भित करता है, जो सभी प्रकार के भगवा रंग और गंध दोनों में सबसे अच्छा था।हरश, एक प्रसिद्ध कवि (7 वीं शताब्दी ईस्वी), अपने "रत्नावली" (नाटक) में, कश्मीरा देश के केसर (ज़ाफ़रान) को संदर्भित करता है, जो सभी प्रकार के केसर (ज़ाफ़रान) रंग और गंध दोनों में सबसे अच्छा था।

Later, the Panchalas are stated to have established their sway. The name Peer Panjal, which is a part of modern Kashmir, is a witness to this fact. Panjal is simply a distorted form of the Sanskritic tribal term Panchala. The Muslims prefixed the word peer to it in memory of Siddha Faqir and the name thereafter is said to have changed into Peer Panjal. According to legend, Jammu was founded by Hindu King Raja Jambu Lochan in the 14th century BC. During one of his hunting campaigns he reached the Tawi River where he saw a goat and a lion drinking water at the same place. The king was impressed and decided to set up a town after his name, Jamboo. With the passage of time, the name was corrupted and became "Jammu".
बाद में, पंचालों के बारे में कहा जाता है कि उन्होंने अपना बोलबाला स्थापित किया। पीर पंजाल नाम, जो आधुनिक कश्मीर का एक हिस्सा है, इस तथ्य का साक्षी है। पंजाल केवल संस्कृत आदिवासी शब्द पंचला का विकृत रूप है। मुसलमानों ने सिद्ध फ़कीर की याद में इसके लिए पीर शब्द का उपसर्ग किया और उसके बाद नाम पीर पंजाल में बदल दिया। किंवदंती के अनुसार, जम्मू की स्थापना 14 वीं शताब्दी ईसा पूर्व में हिंदू राजा राजा जम्बू लोचन ने की थी। अपने एक शिकार अभियान के दौरान वे तवी नदी पर पहुँचे जहाँ उन्होंने एक बकरी और एक शेर को उसी स्थान पर पानी पीते देखा। राजा प्रभावित हुआ और उसने अपने नाम के बाद एक शहर बसाने की ठान ली। समय बीतने के साथ, नाम भ्रष्ट हो गया और "जम्मू" बन गया।
The Nilamata Purana (नीलमत पुराण) (is an ancient text (6th to 8th century AD)) describes the Valley's origin from the waters, a fact corroborated by prominent geologists, and shows how the name of the land was derived from the process of desiccation–Ka means "water" and Shimir means "to desiccate” from Kashmir which contains information on its history, geography, religion, and folklore).The earliest Sanskrit literature of the valley so far known is the Nilmat Purana. According to the opinion of Dr. Buhler, a famous German Indologist: "It is a real mine of information regarding the sacred places of Kashmir and their legends". Besides, the reference to worships prescribed by "Nila" and observed by the people, the work dilates upon such various topics as the Principal Nagas or sacred springs of Kashmir, the origin of the "Mahapadamsara" (present Wular Lake), places dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu, the sacred river confluences and lakes, the chief pilgrimages of the land and in the end upon the sanctity of the Vitasta.
नीलमत पुराण, (एक प्राचीन ग्रन्थ (छठी से आठवीं शताब्दी ईस्वी सन्) है) में घाटी की उत्पत्ति का वर्णन जल से किया गया है, एक तथ्य जो प्रमुख भूवैज्ञानिकों द्वारा स्वीकृत है, और यह दर्शाता है कि किस प्रकार भूमि का नाम विलोपन की प्रक्रिया से उत्पन्न हुआ था "का" का अर्थ है "पानी" और "शिमिर" का अर्थ है कश्मीर से "उजाड़ना" जिसमें इसके इतिहास, भूगोल, धर्म और लोकगीतों के बारे में जानकारी शामिल है)। घाटी का अब तक का सबसे पहला संस्कृत साहित्य नीलामत पुराण के अनुसार है। एक प्रसिद्ध जर्मन इंडोलॉजिस्ट डॉ। बुहलर की राय: "यह कश्मीर के पवित्र स्थानों और उनके किंवदंतियों के बारे में जानकारी की एक वास्तविक खान है।" इसके अलावा, "निला" द्वारा निर्धारित पूजाओं और लोगों द्वारा मनाए गए कार्यों का संदर्भ है। कश्मीर के प्रमुख नागाओं या पवित्र झरनों, "महापद्मसर" (वर्तमान वुलर झील), शिव और विष्णु को समर्पित स्थान, पवित्र नदी संगम और झीलों के लिए समर्पित स्थानों के रूप में इस तरह के विभिन्न विषयों पर फैला है|

The Kashmiris, however, call it Kashir, which has been derived phonetically from Kashmir. The Ancient Greeks called it as Kasperia. Kashyapa-pura, which has been identified with Kaspapyros of Hecataeus Kashmir is also believed to be the country meant by Ptolemy's Kaspeiria. Cashmere is an archaic spelling of present-Kashmir, and in some countries, it is still spelled this way.
हालाँकि, कश्मीरी इसे कशीर कहते हैं, जो कश्मीर से ध्वन्यात्मक (ध्‍वनिविज्ञान की दृश्टि से) रूप से लिया गया है। प्राचीन यूनानियों ने इसे कास्पेरिया कहा "कश्यप-पुर, जिसकी पहचान हेकाटेउस कश्मीर के कैसपायरोस के साथ की गई है, यह भी माना जाता है कि टॉलेमी के कास्पिरिया का मतलब देश है। कश्मीरी वर्तमान कश्मीर की एक पुरातन वर्तनी है, और कुछ देशों में अभी भी इस तरह से वर्तनी है" |
In 326 BCE, Porus asked Abisares, the king of Kashmir, to aid him against Alexander the Great in the Battle of Hydaspes.  During the reign of Ashoka (304–232 BCE), Kashmir became a part of the Maurya Empire and Buddhism was introduced in Kashmir. During this period, many stupas, some shrines dedicated to Shiva, and the city of Srinagari (Srinagar) were built.
326 ईसा पूर्व में, पोरस ने सिंधु की लड़ाई में सिकंदर के खिलाफ सहायता करने के लिए कश्मीर के राजा, अबिसारेस से पूछा। उन्होंने सिकंदर के खिलाफ पोरस की मदद करने से इनकार कर दिया।  अशोक (304-232 ईसा पूर्व) के शासनकाल के दौरान, कश्मीर मौर्य साम्राज्य का हिस्सा बन गया और कश्मीर में बौद्ध धर्म की शुरुआत हुई। इस अवधि के दौरान, कई स्तूप, शिव को समर्पित कुछ मंदिर और श्रीनगरी (श्रीनगर) शहर बनाए गए।


Hinduism and Buddhism in Kashmir:
Abhinavagupta (950–1020 CE) was one of India's greatest philosophers, mystics and aestheticians. He was also considered an important musician, poet, dramatist, exeget, theologian, and logician – a polymathic personality who exercised strong influences on Indian culture. He was born in the Kashmir Valley.
अभिनवगुप्त (950–1020 CE) भारत के महान दार्शनिकों, मनीषियों और सौंदर्यशास्त्रियों में से एक थे। उन्हें एक महत्वपूर्ण संगीतकार, कवि, नाटककार, एक्सगेट, धर्मशास्त्री और तर्कशास्त्री भी माना जाता था - एक बहुरूपी व्यक्तित्व जिसने भारतीय संस्कृति पर प्रभाव डाला। उनका जन्म कश्मीर घाटी में हुआ था।
Kanishka (127–151 CE), an emperor of the Kushan dynasty, conquered Kashmir and established the new city of Kanishkapur. By the fourth century, Kashmir became a seat of learning for both Buddhism and Hinduism.

कुषाण वंश के एक सम्राट कनिष्क (127–151 CE) ने कश्मीर पर विजय प्राप्त की और कनिष्कपुर के नए शहर की स्थापना की। चौथी शताब्दी तक, कश्मीर बौद्ध और हिंदू धर्म दोनों के लिए सीखने का स्थान बन गया।
Kumārajīva (343–413 CE) was among the renowned Kashmiri scholars who traveled to China. He influenced the Chinese emperor Yao Xing and spearheaded translation of many Sanskrit works into Chinese at the Chang'an monastery. Buddhist tradition holds that Kanishka held the Fourth Buddhist council in Kashmir, in which celebrated scholars such as Ashvagosha, Nagarjuna and Vasumitra took part. By the fourth century, Kashmir became a seat of learning for both Buddhism and Hinduism. Kashmiri Buddhist missionaries helped spread Buddhism to Tibet and China and from the fifth century CE, pilgrims from these countries started visiting Kashmir.



कुमारजीव (343–413 CE) प्रसिद्ध कश्मीरी विद्वानों में से थे जिन्होंने चीन की यात्रा की। उन्होंने चीनी सम्राट याओ जिंग को प्रभावित किया और चांगान मठ में कई संस्कृत कृतियों का चीनी भाषा में अनुवाद किया।बौद्ध परंपरा यह मानती है कि कनिष्क ने कश्मीर में चौथी बौद्ध परिषद का आयोजन किया, जिसमें अश्वघोष, नागार्जुन और वसुमित्र जैसे विद्वानों ने भाग लिया। चौथी शताब्दी तक, कश्मीर बौद्ध और हिंदू धर्म दोनों के लिए सीखने का स्थान बन गया। कश्मीरी बौद्ध मिशनरियों ने बौद्ध धर्म को तिब्बत और चीन तक फैलाने में मदद की और पाँचवीं शताब्दी ईस्वी सन् से इन देशों के तीर्थयात्री कश्मीर की यात्रा करने लगे।


Hepthalites (White Huns) under Toramana crossed over the Hindukush mountains and conquered large parts of western India including Kashmir. His son Mihirakula (c. 502–530 CE) led a military campaign to conquer all of North India. He was opposed by Baladitya in Magadha and eventually defeated by Yasodharman in Malwa.After the defeat, Mihirakula returned to Kashmir where he led a coup on the king. He then conquered of Gandhara where he committed many atrocities on Buddhists and destroyed their shrines. Influence of the Huns faded after Mihirakula's death.

तोरमाणा के अंतर्गत हेपटेलाइट्स (व्हाइट हूण) हिंदुकुश पर्वतों के पार गए और कश्मीर सहित पश्चिमी भारत के बड़े हिस्से को जीत लिया। उनके पुत्र मिहिरकुल (502–530 CE) ने पूरे उत्तर भारत को जीतने के लिए एक सैन्य अभियान का नेतृत्व किया। वह मगध में बालादित्य द्वारा विरोध किया गया था और अंततः मालवा में यशोधर्मन द्वारा पराजित हुआ।हार के बाद, मिहिरकुला, कश्मीर लौट आया जहां उसने राजा पर तख्तापलट किया। उसने तब गांधार पर विजय प्राप्त की जहां उसने बौद्धों पर कई अत्याचार किए और उनके मंदिरों को नष्ट कर दिया। मिहिरकुला की मृत्यु के बाद हूणों का प्रभाव फीका पड़ गया।

Gandhari (Sanskrit: गांधारी, lit. A girl from Gandhara) is a prominent character in the Hindu epic the Mahabharata. She was a princess of Gandhara and the wife of Dhritrashtra, the blind king of Hastinapura, and the mother of a hundred sons, the Kauravas. As a pativratha (devoted wife) without parallel, Gandhari is regarded as an epitome of virtue, and is among the most respected moral forces in the epic. She was not only married to a blind man, but at the time of her wedding, she resolved to spend the remainder of her life as a blind woman herself, in order to share the debility and pain of her husband. For the rest of her life, she kept a cloth tied to her eyes and thus deprived herself of the power of sight. At certain critical junctures, she gave advice to her husband which was impeccable from a moral standpoint; she never wavered in her adherence to dharma (righteousness), even to a very bitter end. 
गांधारी महाभारत की एक पात्र हैं। वो महाराज धृतराष्ट्र की पत्नी थी और प्रमुख खलनायक दुर्योधन की माँ थीं। गांधारी देख सकती थीं लेकिन पति के आँखों से विकलांग होने के कारण उन्होंने खुद की आँखों पर भी हमेशा के लिए एक पट्टी बाँध ली थी। महाभारत के अनुसार वो सौ पुत्रों की माता थीं। समानांतर के बिना एक पतिव्रत (समर्पित पत्नी) के रूप में, गांधारी को पतिव्रत गुण का प्रतीक माना जाता है, और महाकाव्य में सबसे सम्मानित नैतिक लोगों में से एक है। उसने न केवल एक अंधे आदमी से शादी की थी, बल्कि अपनी शादी के समय, उसने अपने जीवन की शेष राशि को एक नेत्रहीन महिला के रूप में खर्च करने का संकल्प लिया, ताकि वह अपने पति की दुर्दशा और दर्द को साझा कर सके। अपने जीवन के बाकी समय के लिए, उसने अपनी आँखों से एक कपड़ा बांध रखा था और इस तरह खुद को दृष्टि की शक्ति से वंचित कर लिया। कुछ महत्वपूर्ण बिंदुओं पर, उसने अपने पति को सलाह दी जो नैतिक दृष्टिकोण से त्रुटिहीन था; वह अपने धर्म (धार्मिकता) के पालन में कभी नहीं रुकी, यहाँ तक कि बहुत कड़वे अंत तक भी।
After seventh century, significant developments took place in Kashmiri Hinduism. In the centuries that followed, Kashmir produced many poets, philosophers, and artists who contributed to Sanskrit literature and Hindu religion. Among notable scholars of this period was Vasugupta (c. 875–925 CE) who wrote the Shiva Sutras which laid the foundation for a monistic Shaiva system called Kashmir Shaivism. Dualistic interpretation of Shaiva scripture was defeated by Abhinavagupta (c. 975–1025 CE) who wrote many philosophical works on Kashmir Shaivism. Kashmir Shaivism was adopted by the common masses of Kashmir and strongly influenced Shaivism in Southern India.

सातवीं शताब्दी के बाद, कश्मीरी हिंदू धर्म में महत्वपूर्ण विकास हुए। इसके बाद की शताब्दियों में, कश्मीर ने कई कवियों, दार्शनिकों और कलाकारों का उत्पादन किया जिन्होंने संस्कृत साहित्य और हिंदू धर्म में योगदान दिया।  इस काल के उल्लेखनीय विद्वानों में वसुगुप्त (c। 875–925 CE) थे, जिन्होंने शिव सूत्र लिखा, जिसमें कश्मीर शैववाद नामक एक अद्वैत शैव प्रणाली की नींव रखी। अभिनव शास्त्र की द्वैतवादी व्याख्या अभिनवगुप्त (सी। 975–1025 सीई) ने पराजित की, जिन्होंने कश्मीर शैव धर्म पर कई दार्शनिक रचनाएँ लिखीं। कश्मीर शैववाद को कश्मीर की आम जनता ने अपनाया और दक्षिण भारत में शैववाद को बहुत प्रभावित किया।

Muslim rule:
During the reign of Sehadeva (1301), a Tatar chief Dulucha invaded Kashmir and ravaged it. King Sehadeva fled the country and his general Ramachandra occupied the throne.
सहदेव (1301) के शासनकाल के दौरान, एक तातार प्रमुख दुलुचा ने कश्मीर पर आक्रमण किया और इसे तबाह कर दिया। राजा सहदेव देश छोड़कर भाग गए और उनके सेनापति रामचंद्र ने राजगद्दी पर कब्जा कर लिया।
In the confusion Rinchan (reigned 1320–23), the Ladhaki prince, organised an internal rising and seized the throne. He married Kota Rani, the daughter of Ramachandra. The Hindu religious leaders of the time refused to admit into their fold. Rinchan embraced Islam and took Muslim name of Sultan Sadruddin. He was attacked by rebels and was badly wounded and died in 1323 A.D. Just before his death Sultan Sadruddin (Rinchan) summoned his trusted minister, Shah Mir, and entrusted his son, Hyder, and wife, Kotarani, to his care. After the death of Rinchan, who was assassinated, Kotarani married Udayanadeva, the brother of Sehadava.
The last Hindu ruler of Kashmir was Udyanadeva. It was his chief Queen Kota Rani, who practically governed the state. She was a very brave, shrewd and an able ruler. Though she tried her best to save her kingdom, odds were too heavy for her. The Kashmir Valley was again invaded by a Mongol-Turk invader Achalla, and Udayanadeva fled to Tibet. But the Queen defeated (killed) Achalla and drove away all the foreign troops.
Finally in this age of chaos Shah Mir organized an uprising against Queen Kota Rani and defeated her at Jayapur (modern Sumbal). she stabbed herself to death, because Shah Mir wanted to marry her. Her death in 1339 paved the way for the establishment of Shah Mir dynasty rule in Kashmir.
Shams-ud-Din Shah Mir (1339–42) was a ruler of Kashmir and the founder of the Shah Miri dynasty named after him. He was the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir and founder of the Shah Mir Dynasty. Jonaraja, in his Dvitīyā Rājataraṅginī mentioned him as Sahamera. He came from sawat according to some sources.



Joanaraja, a Kashmiri historian of the Medieval period recorded Shah Mir's forefathers were Kshatriya descended from Arjuna whose ancestors had taken up Islam. This was further recorded by Abu'l Fzal in the Akbarnama and Farishta.
Mughal general Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat, a member of ruling family in Kashgar, invaded Kashmir in 1540 CE on behalf of emperor Humayun. Persecution of Shias, Shafi'is, and Sufis and instigation by Suri kings led to a revolt which overthrew Dughlat's rule in Kashmir. Kashmir did not witness direct Mughal rule till the reign of Mughal king Akbar.
 Nadir Shah's invasion of India in 1738 CE further weakened Mughal control over Kashmir. In 1753, Abdul Khan Isk Aquasi, a general in Ahmed Shah Abdali's army, invaded Kashmir and established rule of the Durrani Empire of Afghanistan. Afghan rule in Kashmir was extremely cruel and oppressive, particularly for the Hindus. Locals were extorted from, captured and forced into slavery during this period. Dominance of Afghans declined after Ahmed Shah Abdali's death in 1772, but they ruled Kashmir for another 47 years. 
In 1819, the Kashmir valley passed from the control of the Durrani Empire of Afghanistan, and four centuries of Muslim rule under the Mughals and the Afghans, to the conquering armies of the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh of Lahore.
After a famine in 1832, the Sikhs reduced the land tax to half the produce of the land and also began to offer interest-free loans to farmers; Kashmir became the second highest revenue earner for the Sikh empire. During this time Kashmiri shawls became known world wide, attracting many buyers especially in the west.
Earlier, in 1780, after the death of Ranjit Deo, the Raja of Jammu, the kingdom of Jammu (to the south of the Kashmir valley) was also captured by the Sikhs and afterwards, until 1846, became a tributary to the Sikh power. Ranjit Deo's grandnephew, Gulab Singh, subsequently sought service at the court of Ranjit Singh, distinguished himself in later campaigns, especially the annexation of the Kashmir valley, and, for his services, was appointed governor of Jammu in 1820. With the help of his officer, Zorawar Singh, Gulab Singh soon captured for the Sikhs the lands of Ladakh and Baltistan to the east and north-east, respectively, of Jammu.

In 1845, the First Anglo-Sikh War broke out, and Gulab Singh "contrived to hold himself aloof till the battle of Sobraon (1846), when he appeared as a useful mediator and the trusted advisor of Sir Henry Lawrence.
Two treaties were concluded. By the first the State of Lahore (i.e. West Punjab) handed over to the British, as equivalent for (rupees) ten million of indemnity, the hill countries between Beas and Indus; by the second the British made over to Gulab Singh for (Rupees) 7.5 million all the hilly or mountainous country situated to the east of Indus and west of Ravi" (i.e. the Vale of Kashmir). 
The Treaty of Amritsar freed Gulab Singh from obligations towards the Sikhs and made him the Maharajah of Jammu and Kashmir.
The Dogras' loyalty came in handy to the British during the revolt of 1857 which challenged British rule in India. Dogras refused to provide sanctuary to mutineers, allowed English women and children to seek asylum in Kashmir and sent Kashmiri troops to fight on behalf of the British. British in return rewarded them by securing the succession of Dogra rule in Kashmir. Soon after Gulab Singh's death in 1857, his son, Ranbir Singh, added the emirates of Hunza, Gilgit and Nagar to the kingdom.
British rule in India ended in 1947 with the creation of new states: the Dominion of Pakistan and the Union of India, as the successor states to British India. The British Paramountcy over the 562 Indian princely states ended.
According to the Indian Independence Act 1947, "the suzerainty of His Majesty over the Indian States lapses, and with it, all treaties and agreements in force at the date of the passing of this Act between His Majesty and the rulers of Indian States". States were thereafter left to choose whether to join India or Pakistan or to remain independent. 
1931: The movement against the repressive Maharaja Hari Singh begins. It is brutally suppressed by the State forces. Hari Singh is part of a Dogra dynasty, ruling over a majority Muslim State. The predominantly Muslim population was kept poor, illiterate and was not adequately represented in the State's services.
The Glancy Commission appointed by the Maharaja publishes a report in April 1932, confirming the existence of the grievances of the State's subjects and suggests recommendations providing for adequate representation of Muslims in the State's services; Maharaja accepts these recommendations but delays implementation, leading to another agitation in 1934
1932: All Jammu and Kashmir Muslim Conference founded by Sheikh Abdullah in collaboration with Chaudhry Ghulam Abbas to fight for the rights of State's Muslims.
1937: Sheikh Abdullah's first meeting with Jawaharlal Nehru in a Lahore railway station.
1938: Sheikh Abdullah renames Muslim Conference to National Conference and throws it open to people of all religions.
23 March 1940: The Lahore Resolution is proposed by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and seconded by Sikandar Hayat Khan and Fazlul Haq. There is no mention of "Pakistan", an acronym invented by Chaudhury Rehmat Ali in England, but the Lahore Resolution later becomes known as the Pakistan Resolution.
1941: Chaudhry Ghulam Abbas breaks off from National Conference and revives the old Muslim Conference. The Muslim Conference becomes a client of the Jinnah-led Muslim League.

Summer 1944: Mohammad Ali Jinnah visits Kashmir, supports Muslim Conference in preference to National Conference.
May 1946: Sheikh Abdullah launches the "Quit Kashmir" movement against the Maharaja. He is arrested. Jawaharlal Nehru attempts to go to Kashmir to defend Abdullah. He is arrested and forced to leave the State.
October 1946: Muslim Conference launches a `Campaign of Action' demanding the end of autocratic rule by the Maharaja. Chaudhry Ghulam Abbas imprisond.

19 June: Lord Mountbatten visits Kashmir for 5 days to persuade the Maharaja to accede to India or Pakistan. Maharaja shows reluctance.
22 July: The Muslim Conference declares in favour of the State's accession to Pakistan.
23 July: State's Prime Minister Ram Chandra Kak visits Delhi for 5 days, meeting Mountbatten as well as the political leaders of Congress and Muslim League. He explains that the State has decided not to accede to either Dominion.
1 August: Mahatma Gandhi visits the Maharaja; impresses upon him the need to be prompt in deciding on the State's accession. The Gilgit Agency is transferred by the British to the Maharaja.
11 August: Maharaja dismisses Prime Minister Ram Chandra Kak and replaces him with the retired Major Janak Singh.
11–13 August: Partition violence erupts in Sialkot, driving the surviving Hindus and Sikhs to Jammu.
14–15 August: Independence and Partition of British India into India and Pakistan. Kashmir signs Standstill Agreement with Pakistan. India requests further discussions for a Standstill agreement.
18 August: In one of the worst train massacres of Partition, Lohars and 'Kashmiris' of Nizamabad kill all the Hindu and Sikh passengers of Wazirabad-Jammu train. http://www.dawn.com/news/668382/excerpt-stories-of-an-unacknowledged-massacre.


1 comment:

Dating Tip said...

Visit the Heaven on earth kashmir tours packages and get blessed by Mata Vaishnodevi tour with Ajinkya tours affordable tour packages and create memories for lifetime.

http://ajinkyatours.in/Kashmir_tour.aspx