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The Age of Social Change:
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The Age of Social Change:
The French Revolution opened up the possibility of
creating a dramatic change in the way in which society was structured. In many parts of
the world including Europe and Asia, new ideas about individual rights and who
controlled social power began to be discussed. In India, Raja Rammohan Roy and
Derozio talked of the significance of the French Revolution, and many others
debated the ideas of post-revolutionary Europe. The developments in the
colonies, in turn, reshaped these ideas of societal change.
Not everyone in Europe, however, wanted a complete
transformation of society. Responses varied from those who accepted that some
change was necessary but wished for a gradual shift, to those who wanted to
restructure society radically. Some were 'conservatives', others were 'liberals' or 'radicals' What did these terms really mean in the context of
the time? What separated these strands of politics and what linked them
together? We must remember that these terms do not mean the same thing in all
contexts or at all times.
Liberals,
Radicals and Conservatives:
One of the groups which looked to change society
were the liberals. Liberals wanted a nation which tolerated all religions. We should
remember that at this time European states usually discriminated in favour of
one religion or another (Britain favoured the Church of England, Austria and
Spain favoured the Catholic Church). Liberals also opposed the uncontrolled
power of dynastic rulers. They wanted to safeguard the rights of individuals
against governments. They argued for a representative, elected parliamentary
government, subject to laws interpreted by a well-trained judiciary that was
independent of rulers and officials. However, they were not ‘democrats’. They
did not believe in universal adult franchise, that is, the right of every
citizen to vote. They felt men of property mainly should have the vote. They
also did not want the vote for women.
In contrast, radicals wanted a nation in which
government was based on the majority of a country’s population. Many supported
women’s suffragette (A movement to give women the right to vote)
movements. Unlike liberals, they opposed the privileges of great landowners and
wealthy factory owners. They were not against the existence of private property
but disliked concentration of property in the hands of a few.
Conservatives were opposed to radicals and liberals.
After the French Revolution, however, even conservatives had opened their minds
to the need for change. Earlier, in the eighteenth century, conservatives had
been generally opposed to the idea of change. By the nineteenth century, they
accepted that some change was inevitable but believed that the past had to be
respected and change had to be brought about through a slow process.
Industrial Society and Social Change:
Industrialisation brought men, women and children to
factories. Work hours were often long and wages were poor. Unemployment was common,
particularly during times of low demand for industrial goods. Housing and
sanitation were problems since towns were growing rapidly. Liberals and
radicals searched for solutions to these issues.
Almost all industries were the property of
individuals. Liberals and radicals themselves were often property owners and
employers. Having made their wealth through trade or industrial ventures, they felt
that such effort should be encouraged, that its benefits would be achieved if
the workforce in the economy was healthy and citizens were educated. Opposed to
the privileges the old aristocracy had by birth, they firmly believed in the
value of individual effort, labour and enterprise. If freedom of individuals
was ensured, if the poor could labour, and those with capital could operate
without restraint, they believed that societies would develop. Many working men
and women who wanted changes in the world rallied around liberal and radical
groups and parties in the early nineteenth century.
Some nationalists, liberals and radicals wanted
revolutions to put an end to the kind of governments established in Europe in
1815. In France, Italy, Germany and Russia, they became revolutionaries and worked
to overthrow existing monarchs. Nationalists talked of revolutions that would
create ‘nations’ where all citizens would have equal rights.
After 1815,
Giuseppe Mazzini, an Italian nationalist, conspired with others to achieve this
in Italy. Nationalists elsewhere . including India read his writings.
Condition of Poor in London in 19th century by Henry Mayhew:
Victorian London - Publications -
Social Investigation/Journalism - London Labour and the London Poor; 1851,
1861-2; Henry Mayhew
The number of costermongers, -that it is to say, of those
street-sellers attending the London "green" and "fish
markets," -appears to be, from the best data at my command, now 30,000
men, women, and children. The census of 1841 gives only 2,045 "hawkers,
hucksters, and pedlars," in the metropolis, and no costermongers or
street-sellers, or street-performers at all. This number is absurdly small, and
its absurdity is accounted for by the fact that not one in twenty of the
costermongers, or of the people with whom they lodged, troubled themselves to
fill up the census returns -the majority of them being unable to read and
write, and others distrustful of the purpose for which the returns were wanted.
The costermongering class extends itself yearly; and it is computed that for the last five years it has increased considerably faster than the general metropolitan population. This increase is derived partly from all the children of costermongers following the father's trade, but chiefly from working men, such as the servants of greengrocers or of innkeepers, when out of employ, "taking to a coster's barrow" for a livelihood; and the same being done by mechanics and labourers out of work. At the time of the famine in Ireland, it is calculated, that the number of Irish obtaining a living in the London streets must have been at least doubled.
The great discrepancy between the government returns and the accounts of the costermongers themselves, concerning the number of people obtaining a living by the sale of fish, fruit, and vegetables, in the streets of London, caused me to institute an inquiry at the several metropolitan markets concerning the number of street-sellers attending them: the following is the result:
During the summer months and fruit season, the average number of costermongers attending Covent-garden market is about 2,500 per marketday. In the strawberry season there are nearly double as many, there being, at that time, a large number of Jews who come to buy; during that period, on a Saturday morning, from the commencement to the close of the market, as many as 4,000 costers have been reckoned purchasing at Covent- garden. Through the winter season, however, the number of costermongers does not exceed upon the average 1,000 per market morning. About one-tenth of the fruit and vegetables of the least expensive kind sold at this market is purchased by the costers. Some of the better class of costers, who have their regular customers, are very particular as to the quality of the articles they buy; but others are not so particular; so long as they can get things cheap, I am informed, they do not care much about the quality. The Irish more especially look out for damaged articles, which they buy at a low price. One of my informants told me that the costers were the best customers to the growers, inasmuch as when the market is flagging on account of the weather, they (the costers) wait and make their purchases. On other occasions, such as fine mornings, the costers purchase as early as others. There is no trust given to them -to use the words of one of my informants, they are such slippery customers; here to-day and gone to-morrow.
At Leadenhall market, during the winter months, there are from 70 to 100 costermongers general attendants; but during the summer not much more than one-half that number make their appearance. Their purchases consist of warren-rabbits, poultry, and game, of which about one-eighth of the whole amount brought to this market is bought by them. When the market is slack, and during the summer, when there is "no great call" for game, etc., the costers attending Leadenhall-market turn their hand to crockery, fruit, and fish.
The costermongers frequenting Spitalfields market average all the year through from 700 to 1,000 each market-day. They come from all parts, as far as Edmonton, Edgeware, and Tottenham; Highgate, Hampstead, and even from Greenwich and Lewisham. Full one-third of the produce of this market is purchased by them.
The number of costermongers attending the Borough-market is about 250 during the fruit season, after which time they decrease to about 200 per market morning. About one- sixth of the produce that comes into this market is purchased by the costermongers. One gentleman informed me, that the salesmen might shut up their shops were it not for these men. "In fact," said another, "I don't know what would become of the fruit without them."
The costers at Billingsgate-market, daily, number from 3,000 to 4,000 in winter, and about 2,500 in summer. A leading salesman told me that he would rather have an order from a costermonger than a fishmonger; for the one paid ready money, while the other required credit. The same gentleman assured me, that the costermongers bought excellent fish, and that very largely. They themselves aver that they purchase half the fish brought to Billingsgate some fish trades being entirely in their hands. I ascertained, however, from the authorities at Billingsgate, and from experienced salesmen, that of the quantity of fish conveyed to that great mart, the costermongers bought onethird; another third was sent into the country; and another disposed of to the fishmongers, and to such hotel- keepers, or other large purchasers, as resorted to Billingsgate.
The salesmen at the several markets all agreed in stating that no trust was given to the costermongers. "Trust them!" exclaimed one, "O, certainly, as far as I can see them."
Now, adding the above figures together, we have the subjoined sum for the gross number of COSTERMONGERS ATTENDING THE LONDON MARKETS.
Billingsgate-market 3,500
Covent-garden 4,000
Spitalfields 1,000
Borough 250
Leadenhall 100
Total 9,350
Besides these, I am credibly informed, that it may be assumed there are full 1,000 men who are unable to attend market, owing to the dissipation of the previous night; another 1,000 are absent owing to their having "stock on hand," and so requiring no fresh purchases; and further, it may be estimated that there are at least 2,000 boys in London at work for costers, at half profits, and who consequently have no occasion to visit the markets. Hence, putting these numbers together, we arrive at the conclusion that there are in London upwards of 13,000 street-sellers, dealing in fish, fruit, vegetables, game, and poultry alone. To be on the safe side, however, let us assume the number of London costermongers to be 12,000, and that onehalf of these are married and have two children (which from all accounts appears to be about the proportion); and then we have 30,000 for the sum total of men, women, and children dependent on "costermongering" for their subsistence.
Large as this number may seem, still I am satisfied it is rather within than beyond the truth. In order to convince myself of its accuracy, I caused it to be checked in several ways. In the first place, a survey was made as to the number of stalls in the streets of London -fortysix miles of the principal thoroughfares were travelled over, and an account taken of the "standings." Thus it was found that there were upon an average upwards of fourteen stalls to the mile, of which five-sixths were fish and fruitstalls. Now, according to the Metropolitan Police Returns, there are 2,000 miles of street throughout London, and calculating that the stalls through the whole of the metropolis run upon an average only four to the mile, we shall thus find that there are 8,000 stalls altogether in London; of these we may reckon that at least 6,000 are fish and fruit-stalls. I am informed, on the best authority, that twice as many costers "go rounds" as have standings; hence we come to the conclusion that there are 18,000 itinerant and stationary street-sellers of fish, vegetables, and fruit, in the metropolis; and reckoning the same proportion of wives and children as before, we have thus 45,000 men, women, and children, obtaining a living in this manner. Further, "to make assurance doubly sure," the streetmarkets throughout London were severally visited, and the number of street-sellers at each taken down on the spot. These gave a grand total of 3,801, of which number two-thirds were dealers in fish, fruit, and vegetables; and reckoning that twice as many costers again were on their rounds, we thus make the total number of London costermongers to be 11,403, or calculating men, women, and children, 34,209. It would appear, therefore, that if we estimate the gross number of individuals subsisting on the sale of fish, fruit, and vegetables, in the streets of London, at between thirty and forty thousand, we shall not be very wide of the truth.
But, great as is this number, still the costermongers are only a portion of the street-folk. Besides these, there are, as we have seen, many other large classes obtaining their livelihood in the streets. The street musicians, for instance, are said to number 1,000, and the old clothesmen the same. There are supposed to be at the least 500 sellers of water- cresses; 200 coffee-stalls; 300 cats-meat men; 250 balladsingers; 200 play-bill sellers; from 800 to 1,000 bone-grubbers and mud-larks; 1,000 crossing-sweepers; another thousand chimneysweeps, and the same number of turncocks and lamp-lighters; all of whom, together with the street-performers and showmen, tinkers, chair, umbrella, and clock-menders, sellers of bonnet-boxes, toys, stationery, songs, last dying-speeches, tubs, pails, mats, crockery, blacking, lucifers, corn-salves, clothes-pegs, brooms, sweetmeats, razors, dog-collars, dogs, birds, coals, sand, -scavengers, dustmen, and others, make up, it may be fairly assumed, full thirty thousand adults, so that, reckoning men, women, and children, we may truly say that there are upwards of fifty thousand individuals, or about a fortieth-part of the entire population of the metropolis getting their living in the streets.
Now of all modes of obtaining subsistence, that of street-selling is the most precarious. Continued wet weather deprives those who depend for their bread upon the number of people frequenting the public thoroughfares of all means of living; and it is painful to think of the hundreds belonging to this class in the the metropolis who are reduced to starvation by three or four days successive rain. Moreover, in the winter, the street-sellers of fruit and vegetables are cut off from the ordinary means of gaining their livelihood, and, consequently, they have to suffer the greatest privations at a time when the severity of the season demands the greatest amount of physical comforts. To expect that the increased earnings of the summer should be put aside as a provision against the deficiencies of the winter, is to expect that a precarious occupation should beget provident habits, which is against the nature of things, for it is always in those callings which are the most uncertain, that the greatest amount of improvidence and intemperance are found to exist. It is not the well-fed man, be it observed, but the starving one that is in danger of surfeiting himself.
Moreover, when the religious, moral, and intellectual degradation of the great majority of these fifty thousand people is impressed upon us, it becomes positively appalling to contemplate the vast amount of vice, ignorance and want, existing in these days in the very heart of our land. The public have but to read the following plain unvarnished account of the habits, amusements, dealings, education, politics, and religion of the London costermongers in the nineteenth century, and then to say whether they think it safe -even if it be thought fit -to allow men, women, and children to continue in such a state.
Reference:
http://www.csiss.org/classics/content/25
NCERT Book ,class 9 ,India and the Contempoarary World-I
http://www.luminous-lint.com/app/image/82454314352528226057012/
http://www.victorianlondon.org/publications/mayhew1-1.htm(Victorian London - Publications - Social Investigation/Journalism - London Labour and the London Poor; 1851, 1861-2; Henry Mayhew)
Condition of Poor in London in 19th century by Henry Mayhew:
Henry Mayhew (25 November 1812 – 25
July 1887) was an English social researcher, journalist, playwright and
advocate of reform. He was one of the co-founders of the satirical and humorous
magazine Punch in
1841, and was the magazine's joint-editor, with Mark Lemon, in its early days. He
is also known for his work as a social researcher, publishing an extensive series
of newspaper articles in the Morning Chronicle that
was later compiled into the book series London Labour and the London Poor (1851), a
groundbreaking and influential survey of the city's poor.
London Labour and the London Poor is a work of Victorian journalism by Henry
Mayhew. In the 1840s he observed, documented, and described the state of
working people in London for a series of articles in a newspaper, the Morning
Chronicle, that were later compiled into book form.
Mayhew went into deep, almostpedantic detail
concerning the trades, habits, religion, and domestic arrangements of the
thousands of people working the streets of the city. Much of the material
comprises detailed interviews in which people candidly describe their lives and
work.
For instance, Jack Black talks about his job as "rat and
mole destroyer to Her Majesty", remaining in good humour despite his
experience of a succession of near-fatal infections from bites.
OF THE NUMBER OF COSTERMONGERS AND OTHER STREET-FOLK.
The costermongering class extends itself yearly; and it is computed that for the last five years it has increased considerably faster than the general metropolitan population. This increase is derived partly from all the children of costermongers following the father's trade, but chiefly from working men, such as the servants of greengrocers or of innkeepers, when out of employ, "taking to a coster's barrow" for a livelihood; and the same being done by mechanics and labourers out of work. At the time of the famine in Ireland, it is calculated, that the number of Irish obtaining a living in the London streets must have been at least doubled.
The great discrepancy between the government returns and the accounts of the costermongers themselves, concerning the number of people obtaining a living by the sale of fish, fruit, and vegetables, in the streets of London, caused me to institute an inquiry at the several metropolitan markets concerning the number of street-sellers attending them: the following is the result:
During the summer months and fruit season, the average number of costermongers attending Covent-garden market is about 2,500 per marketday. In the strawberry season there are nearly double as many, there being, at that time, a large number of Jews who come to buy; during that period, on a Saturday morning, from the commencement to the close of the market, as many as 4,000 costers have been reckoned purchasing at Covent- garden. Through the winter season, however, the number of costermongers does not exceed upon the average 1,000 per market morning. About one-tenth of the fruit and vegetables of the least expensive kind sold at this market is purchased by the costers. Some of the better class of costers, who have their regular customers, are very particular as to the quality of the articles they buy; but others are not so particular; so long as they can get things cheap, I am informed, they do not care much about the quality. The Irish more especially look out for damaged articles, which they buy at a low price. One of my informants told me that the costers were the best customers to the growers, inasmuch as when the market is flagging on account of the weather, they (the costers) wait and make their purchases. On other occasions, such as fine mornings, the costers purchase as early as others. There is no trust given to them -to use the words of one of my informants, they are such slippery customers; here to-day and gone to-morrow.
At Leadenhall market, during the winter months, there are from 70 to 100 costermongers general attendants; but during the summer not much more than one-half that number make their appearance. Their purchases consist of warren-rabbits, poultry, and game, of which about one-eighth of the whole amount brought to this market is bought by them. When the market is slack, and during the summer, when there is "no great call" for game, etc., the costers attending Leadenhall-market turn their hand to crockery, fruit, and fish.
The costermongers frequenting Spitalfields market average all the year through from 700 to 1,000 each market-day. They come from all parts, as far as Edmonton, Edgeware, and Tottenham; Highgate, Hampstead, and even from Greenwich and Lewisham. Full one-third of the produce of this market is purchased by them.
The number of costermongers attending the Borough-market is about 250 during the fruit season, after which time they decrease to about 200 per market morning. About one- sixth of the produce that comes into this market is purchased by the costermongers. One gentleman informed me, that the salesmen might shut up their shops were it not for these men. "In fact," said another, "I don't know what would become of the fruit without them."
The costers at Billingsgate-market, daily, number from 3,000 to 4,000 in winter, and about 2,500 in summer. A leading salesman told me that he would rather have an order from a costermonger than a fishmonger; for the one paid ready money, while the other required credit. The same gentleman assured me, that the costermongers bought excellent fish, and that very largely. They themselves aver that they purchase half the fish brought to Billingsgate some fish trades being entirely in their hands. I ascertained, however, from the authorities at Billingsgate, and from experienced salesmen, that of the quantity of fish conveyed to that great mart, the costermongers bought onethird; another third was sent into the country; and another disposed of to the fishmongers, and to such hotel- keepers, or other large purchasers, as resorted to Billingsgate.
The salesmen at the several markets all agreed in stating that no trust was given to the costermongers. "Trust them!" exclaimed one, "O, certainly, as far as I can see them."
Now, adding the above figures together, we have the subjoined sum for the gross number of COSTERMONGERS ATTENDING THE LONDON MARKETS.
Billingsgate-market 3,500
Covent-garden 4,000
Spitalfields 1,000
Borough 250
Leadenhall 100
Total 9,350
Besides these, I am credibly informed, that it may be assumed there are full 1,000 men who are unable to attend market, owing to the dissipation of the previous night; another 1,000 are absent owing to their having "stock on hand," and so requiring no fresh purchases; and further, it may be estimated that there are at least 2,000 boys in London at work for costers, at half profits, and who consequently have no occasion to visit the markets. Hence, putting these numbers together, we arrive at the conclusion that there are in London upwards of 13,000 street-sellers, dealing in fish, fruit, vegetables, game, and poultry alone. To be on the safe side, however, let us assume the number of London costermongers to be 12,000, and that onehalf of these are married and have two children (which from all accounts appears to be about the proportion); and then we have 30,000 for the sum total of men, women, and children dependent on "costermongering" for their subsistence.
Large as this number may seem, still I am satisfied it is rather within than beyond the truth. In order to convince myself of its accuracy, I caused it to be checked in several ways. In the first place, a survey was made as to the number of stalls in the streets of London -fortysix miles of the principal thoroughfares were travelled over, and an account taken of the "standings." Thus it was found that there were upon an average upwards of fourteen stalls to the mile, of which five-sixths were fish and fruitstalls. Now, according to the Metropolitan Police Returns, there are 2,000 miles of street throughout London, and calculating that the stalls through the whole of the metropolis run upon an average only four to the mile, we shall thus find that there are 8,000 stalls altogether in London; of these we may reckon that at least 6,000 are fish and fruit-stalls. I am informed, on the best authority, that twice as many costers "go rounds" as have standings; hence we come to the conclusion that there are 18,000 itinerant and stationary street-sellers of fish, vegetables, and fruit, in the metropolis; and reckoning the same proportion of wives and children as before, we have thus 45,000 men, women, and children, obtaining a living in this manner. Further, "to make assurance doubly sure," the streetmarkets throughout London were severally visited, and the number of street-sellers at each taken down on the spot. These gave a grand total of 3,801, of which number two-thirds were dealers in fish, fruit, and vegetables; and reckoning that twice as many costers again were on their rounds, we thus make the total number of London costermongers to be 11,403, or calculating men, women, and children, 34,209. It would appear, therefore, that if we estimate the gross number of individuals subsisting on the sale of fish, fruit, and vegetables, in the streets of London, at between thirty and forty thousand, we shall not be very wide of the truth.
But, great as is this number, still the costermongers are only a portion of the street-folk. Besides these, there are, as we have seen, many other large classes obtaining their livelihood in the streets. The street musicians, for instance, are said to number 1,000, and the old clothesmen the same. There are supposed to be at the least 500 sellers of water- cresses; 200 coffee-stalls; 300 cats-meat men; 250 balladsingers; 200 play-bill sellers; from 800 to 1,000 bone-grubbers and mud-larks; 1,000 crossing-sweepers; another thousand chimneysweeps, and the same number of turncocks and lamp-lighters; all of whom, together with the street-performers and showmen, tinkers, chair, umbrella, and clock-menders, sellers of bonnet-boxes, toys, stationery, songs, last dying-speeches, tubs, pails, mats, crockery, blacking, lucifers, corn-salves, clothes-pegs, brooms, sweetmeats, razors, dog-collars, dogs, birds, coals, sand, -scavengers, dustmen, and others, make up, it may be fairly assumed, full thirty thousand adults, so that, reckoning men, women, and children, we may truly say that there are upwards of fifty thousand individuals, or about a fortieth-part of the entire population of the metropolis getting their living in the streets.
Now of all modes of obtaining subsistence, that of street-selling is the most precarious. Continued wet weather deprives those who depend for their bread upon the number of people frequenting the public thoroughfares of all means of living; and it is painful to think of the hundreds belonging to this class in the the metropolis who are reduced to starvation by three or four days successive rain. Moreover, in the winter, the street-sellers of fruit and vegetables are cut off from the ordinary means of gaining their livelihood, and, consequently, they have to suffer the greatest privations at a time when the severity of the season demands the greatest amount of physical comforts. To expect that the increased earnings of the summer should be put aside as a provision against the deficiencies of the winter, is to expect that a precarious occupation should beget provident habits, which is against the nature of things, for it is always in those callings which are the most uncertain, that the greatest amount of improvidence and intemperance are found to exist. It is not the well-fed man, be it observed, but the starving one that is in danger of surfeiting himself.
Moreover, when the religious, moral, and intellectual degradation of the great majority of these fifty thousand people is impressed upon us, it becomes positively appalling to contemplate the vast amount of vice, ignorance and want, existing in these days in the very heart of our land. The public have but to read the following plain unvarnished account of the habits, amusements, dealings, education, politics, and religion of the London costermongers in the nineteenth century, and then to say whether they think it safe -even if it be thought fit -to allow men, women, and children to continue in such a state.
Reference:
http://www.csiss.org/classics/content/25
NCERT Book ,class 9 ,India and the Contempoarary World-I
http://www.luminous-lint.com/app/image/82454314352528226057012/
http://www.victorianlondon.org/publications/mayhew1-1.htm(Victorian London - Publications - Social Investigation/Journalism - London Labour and the London Poor; 1851, 1861-2; Henry Mayhew)
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